Agricultural waste is commonly defined as ‘unwanted waste produced from agricultural activities which includes manure, oils, silage plastics, fertiliser, pesticides and herbicides.

In the context of packaging, agricultural waste often refers to harvest waste which can be used as the feedstock for new materials. For example, sugarcane leaves, banana stems, tomato plants and rice husks can become valuable raw materials, rather than waste by-products.

Microbial breakdown of organic matter without oxygen. Anaerobic digestion can be used to convert food by-products, sewage sludge, and other biodegradable materials into digestates (or ‘biosolids’) that can be used as soil enhancers and biogas for energy.

Minimised or zero packaging to eliminate waste. Packaging use is increasing exponentially, and a lot of it isn’t needed. The anti-packaging movement advocates for removing unnecessary packaging elements, lightweighting, switching to standardised containers that can be reused, and designing products without water to go light on packaging or eliminate it entirely. 

Chemical term for containing water or made with water.

A bio-based material is a material intentionally made from living or once-living, organisms. Bio-based materials are defined by the EN standard as ‘materials derived from biomass’.

When plastics are referred to as ‘bio-based’, it sounds positive and yet two questions are key. First, ‘What percentage of the material is bio-based?’ A material can be called bio when it only contains as little as 1% biomaterial. Second, what is its end of life? A bio-based material can behave in exactly the same way as fossil-fuel plastic and will last forever at the end of its life.

Fraction of carbon derived from biomass in a product. There are several approaches to express the bio-based carbon content - as the percentage of the mass, of the total carbon content, or the total organic carbon content of the sample.

Biodegradable is defined as ‘able to decay naturally and in a way that is not harmful.’ However, the word is regularly used to describe products that do not degrade into harmless or benign end-products. ‘Biodegradable plastic’ is a perfect case in point.

Biodiversity, also called biological diversity, refers to the variety of life found in a place on Earth or, often, the total variety of life on Earth. A common measure of this variety, called species richness, is the count of species in an area.

Biomass is defined differently depending on who is defining the word, and in what context. In its simplest form, biomass is used to mean ‘organic’ - ie. a material derived from living organisms, such as plants and animals. Biomass is also used in the context of energy and fuel where plants, wood, and waste are common ‘biomass materials’ used to generate energy.

There is no standard definition of biomaterial, however the average person typically understands the term to mean ‘plant-based’ – and by extension assumes the product is ‘good.’  The word has been used extensively to greenwash and we believe it should be clearly qualified when used.

Packaging that mimics the function of natural packaging found in nature, such as vegetable skins and fruit peels to preserve and protect food. Biomimetic packaging eliminates waste and can be consumed with its content, taking the form of edible membranes for food items and beverages.

Natural Fiber Welding writes that “everything we make returns to the earth as food, or as poison.” NFW uses the term ‘bioneutral’ to describe its ‘do-no-harm’ approach to materials’ science and manufacturing.

NFW’s approach fits within nature’s circularity by using nutrients and nature neutral inputs (e.g. plant fibres or minerals) so that materials can be safely returned to the same environment they originated from. When its products decompose, they do so into the same elements from which they came, nourishing the soil and becoming available to be used again.

Bisphenols are a group of synthetic organic compounds used to produce polymers and resins, which are then used to produce plastics. The family is large, with many bisphenols known to be hazardous to both human and environmental health. 

Bisphenols have been used for decades in polycarbonate plastic and epoxy resin. The former is a strong, durable plastic used to make common consumer goods such as reusable drinks bottles, sports equipment and tableware. The latter is used to coat the insides of water pipes, as well as food and drink cans to avoid metallic tasting products and extend shelf life. 

The problem with bisphenols, however, is that many are known to be toxic, with three listed on the EU’s Candidate List of substances of very high concern (SVHC). Bisphenol A, or BPA, and bisphenol B, or BPB, have been identified as endocrine disruptors for the environment and human health, with the former classified in the EU as a substance that: 

- causes toxic effects on our ability to reproduce 
- causes serious eye damage 
- may cause respiratory irritation 
- may cause skin allergies
- very toxic to aquatic life
- very toxic to aquatic life with long-lasting effects 

Bisphenol AF, or BPAF, will be classified as toxic to reproduction from November 2023, under the ECHA’s Committee for Risk Assessment advice. 

BPA has been restricted as a substance and in mixtures intended for consumer use in the EU since March 2018, and its use on thermal paper has been restricted since January 2020. As a result of these restrictions, many companies are switching to BPS in thermal paper, a concerning development as BPS is also suspected of damaging human reproductive and hormonal systems. 

Despite this knowledge, the EU allows BPA to be used in food contact materials, but only a limited amount (0.05 mg/kg) is allowed to leach into the food. It has been banned in infant feeding bottles since June 2011, and in plastic bottles and packaging containing food for babies and children under three years since September 2018.

In the US, BPA is banned for use in epoxy resin coatings in packaging for powdered and liquid infant formula, polycarbonate infant feeding bottles, and in spill-proof cups for babies. 14 states have BPA regulations in place. 

Both France and Spain have issued outright bans on BPA in food contact materials. 

Something that is produced as a result of making something else. For example, buttermilk is a by-product of making butter.

Carbon is a chemical element that exists in its pure form as diamond or graphite. Coal and oil contain carbon, as do all plants and animals. Keeping carbon in the ground, and not drilling it out as a fossil fuel, is one of the most important actions we can take to slow climate change and because plastic is a by-product of the fossil industry, the two are intrinsically linked.

A way of collecting the carbon produced when fuel is burned so that it is not release into the air – one of the most important ways to combat climate change.

A carbon offset broadly refers to a reduction in Green House Gas emissions, or an increase in carbon storage (for example through land restoration or tree planting), that can be used to compensate for emissions that occur elsewhere.

Offsets typically aim to reduce greenhouse gases emission in the short or long-term. Examples would be wind farms, biomass energy, biogas digesters, or hydroelectric dams. Others include energy efficiency projects like efficient cookstoves, the destruction of industrial pollutants, agricultural by-products and landfill methane, and forestry projects. Some of the most popular carbon offset projects (from a corporate perspective) are energy efficiency and wind turbine projects.

Our global economy is based on a linear ‘take-make and throw’ model, where products become waste at the end of their lives. A circular economy – as the word suggests – is the opposite and goes around in a circle. The natural world is a perfect circular example which creates no waste.  The human economy as it is currently set up, is the opposite.

The Ellen MacArthur Foundation defines the circular economy as a systems solution framework that tackles global challenges like climate change, biodiversity loss, waste, and pollution. It is based on three principles, driven by design: (a) eliminate waste and pollution, (b) circulate products and materials (at their highest value), and (c) regenerate nature.

Climate resilience is the ability to anticipate, prepare for, and respond to hazardous events, trends, or disturbances related to climate change. Improving climate resilience means assessing how climate change will create new, or alter current, climate-related risks, and taking steps to better cope with these risks.

Closed loop is used in the context of recycling and describes the process by which a product is used, recycled, and then made into a new product. In other words, it never goes in the bin. The recycling of aluminium cans is a good example – a can is made, it is used, then recycled into a new can – and the loop goes around again. Closed loop is also used to refer to situations where materials can be ring-fenced and easily collected for recycling. Festivals are a great example.

‘Components’ and ‘constituents’ are important words in the context of recycling. A component is a part of a product that can be separated by hand or by a simple physical means. Think of a plastic window in a box of cereal.

A composite is a mixture of two materials, one of which makes the other stronger. The commonest composites in current use are plastics.

Home composting refers to the process used by individual homeowners to make compost from their food waste for their gardens. A home composting standard does exist, but because people compost using very different approaches (turning it regularly/never, including/excluding meat/cooked foods etc) and because of the wide climatic differences in different countries – the end product can be of widely different quality.

Industrial composting is carried out on a much larger scale for entire cities, regions or countries and follows a standardised process at much higher temperatures than can be achieved by home-composters. Products degrade to leave CO2, water, inorganic compounds and biomass – and importantly, no visible, distinguishable or toxic residue.

For Europe, the key industrial composting standard is the EN13432 harmonised standard. Din Certo and TUV Austria are the official certifying bodies. In the USA, the equivalent standard and testing protocol is called the ASTM D6400.

For the home composting standard, there are two official certifying bodies in Europe – Din Certo and TUV Austria. The latter operates it own ‘OK Compost Home’ certification program which mimics the EN13432 test protocol, but at ambient temperatures.

'Components' and ‘constituents’ are important words in the context of recycling. A constituent is part of a product that cannot be separated by hand or by using simple physical means. For example, chemicals, fibres, inks, adhesives, coatings, colourants are all constituents.

These words are usually used to describe nature’s own cycles where nothing is wasted. For example ‘cycling materials back into the natural environment.’ Leaves fall and decompose and enrich the soil which in turn feeds the trees above.

Deforestation is the clearing or thinning of forests – usually by humans. Deforestation is one of the largest issues in global land use. Estimates of deforestation are traditionally based on the area of forest cleared. For example, the removal of trees for logging, for crops or for grazing lands. Clear-cutting means all the trees are removed, which completely destroys the forest. Even partial logging and accidental fires can thin out trees enough to change the forest structure dramatically.

A condition or state that gets worse or declines over time.

DRS schemes used to be widely used. For example, glass Coke bottles could be bought and returned in exchange for a small fee. DRS are recycling systems where consumers pay a small deposit for a product, and then receive a refund when they return the empty container to a shop or drop-off point. Danish and Norwegian DRS schemes have achieved recycling rates over 90%.

Digestate is a nutrient-rich substance produced by anaerobic digestion that can be used as a fertiliser. It consists of left-over indigestible material and dead micro-organisms. Digestate is not compost, but it shares some similar characteristics.

Using digestate instead of synthetic fertilisers uses less energy, less fossil fuels and has a lower carbon footprint. The nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium in the feedstock also stays in the digestate which means these nutrients are considerably more available than in raw slurry and plants can more easily take them up as nutrients.

Like many words that have been coined in recent years, ‘drop-in plastics’ initially sounded like a positive development. There are two types. The first group are just as polluting as fossil-fuel products. The second group may be industrially compostable which is an improvement on fossil-based plastics, but still face challenges at the end of their life.

• Drop-ins – Drop-in plastics are non-biodegradable materials created from renewable raw materials and which are chemically identical to their fossil counterparts. They are (partly) biobased, non-biodegradable commodity plastics such as Bio-PE, Bio-PET, or Bio-PP. All have the same polluting end-of-life.
• Non Drop-ins – Non Drop-ins may or may not be biodegradable, and have different technical properties to their fossil counterparts. For example, PLA, PHA, Bio-PA, etc.

A radical and new economic model created by Kate Raworth based on planetary and social boundaries. Instead of our current model of unsustainable growth, which is using our limited natural resources at breakneck speed, doughnut economics ensures everything, and everyone thrives.

Downcycling, or cascading, is the recycling of waste where the recycled material is of lower quality and functionality than the original material. In the case of metals, tramp elements accumulate in the secondary metals which means they cannot be used in high-quality applications. For example, steel scrap from end-of-life vehicles is often contaminated with copper from wires and tin from coatings. This contaminated scrap yields a secondary steel that does not meet the specifications for automotive steel and is therefore mostly used in the construction sector instead.

A product’s end of life refers to where it should – or will – end up when its life is over. For example, the end-of-life for paper should be the paper recycling stream and for cans, the metal recycling stream.

The language used to describe a product’s end-of-life has however been made intentionally confusing. For example, ‘recyclable’ means it is theoretically possible to recycle the product, but only if you get it to a specialist facility. ‘Recycled’ on the other hand should mean it is actually widely recycled.

For a designer, the end-of-life of a product needs to become part of the project brief while the product is being designed – not as an after-thought.

Feedstock is defined differently according to the context of its use. For a farmer, feedstock is food for animals. In the context of packaging, feedstock refers to the raw materials needed for the process. For example, trees are the feedstock for the paper manufacturing industry.

The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) was founded in 1994 and is an international, non-governmental organisation promoting responsible forest management worldwide through a certification system. Over 200 million hectares of forest are FSC-certified with the goal to help businesses and consumers to buy wood, paper and forest products from responsibly managed forests.

Fungus, or funga, refers to any group of spore-producing organisms that feed on organic matter, including moulds, yeasts, mushrooms, and toadstools.

Just like a greenhouse in a garden, where the glass traps the heat inside to keep the plants warm, greenhouse gases absorb infrared radiation emitted from the Earth’s surface and re-radiate it back down to the Earth - creating the greenhouse effect and heating the planet. The most important green house gases are carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapour.

The practice of keeping quiet about environmental goals and initiatives. It involves deliberately choosing not to publicise targets and company data, or under-reporting activities to avoid scrutiny and reputational damage. It can also be seen as an attempt to appear falsely sustainable and mislead consumers about a product or brand's climate credentials.

Refers to the political and corporate pushback against climate policies due to the costs involved in implementing environmentally-focused measures to meet global ESG targets.

Greenwashing is the practice of making overstated, deceptive or false claims about a product, technology, policy, or business to appear environmentally sustainable and appeal to eco-conscious consumers. It is often associated with marketing spin and advertising efforts that aren't backed up by a genuine attempt to minimise environmental impacts. The term was coined by environmentalist Jay Westerveld in 1986.

Insetting refers to the practice of reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions or implementing carbon sequestration schemes that are directly associated with the value chain that a company operates within. It often involves bespoke interventions that have a direct impact on the company's operations and outcomes. This is distinct from offsetting, which is the financing of existing and separate projects elsewhere to compensate for a company's GHG emissions.

A refillable and reusable container designed for lifetime use. Keepsake packs are typically made from high-value materials for durability, designed to be visually appealing to encourage users to display and reuse them. The practice ensures the consumer values the resources used to make the packaging.  

Lamination refers to the technique of manufacturing a material in multiple layers, so that the composite material is stronger, has better stability, better sound insulation or looks better. Plastic is widely used as a laminate using heat, pressure, welding, or adhesives.

One of the oldest and most extensively used ways of getting rid of large amounts of rubbish is by burying it in the ground. We are throwing so much away today that we may be mining our landfills in the future to pull out the valuable items. For now, they are huge areas where layers of rubbish are covered with earth and plastic sheeting before the next layer of rubbish is added. When full, the hole is grassed over, and pipes are sunk into the rubbish below to release the methane that is generated underground.

Light weighting is the process of making a product lighter in weight than an object of identical use, quality, or function. Plastic milk bottles are a good example of a product that has been light weighted to such an extent that the final product is now almost flimsy. Light weighting is making headway in the glass industry, where glass packaging is becoming thinner, and therefore lighter, to reduce the impact of carbon emissions during transportation. This need will become moot when electric vehicles, and renewable energy, become commonplace. 

Localisation is the process of adapting the content, or products, and services to specific local markets. Coca-Cola's ‘Share a Coke’ campaign is a great example of localisation. In the US, the bottles said Share a Coke with John or Sarah or Bobby. In Ireland, the ads say Share a Coke with Aoife and Oisín, Irish names.

Localised supply chains refer to sourcing all materials for a product, building, restaurant and so on from the local area, reducing the carbon impact of the final product. Examples of this include sourcing waste from local restaurants to turn into beauty ingredients, owning company farms to grow raw materials close to home, and working with suppliers only in a brand’s home country for everything from ingredients to packaging materials.

Man-made cellulosic fibres (MMCF) are derived from natural plant materials, most commonly wood pulp. The wood pulp is processed using chemical solvents and turned into different types of MMCFs such as Viscose, Rayon, Tencel and Modal. These MMCFs are used in a wide range of products including clothing, textiles and hygienic products such as baby and household wipes.

Viscose is the third most used fibre in the textile industry after polyester and cotton. Three issues are important regarding MMCFs. The first is if sustainable forestry practices are not followed. The second is that MMCFs continue the practice of using virgin materials. The third is that hazardous chemicals are used during manufacture.

PlasticFree materials are categorised against six different stages of availability, clearly communicating where a material is in its development and how easily a designer can work with that material today. The six stages are as follows: 

• Concept Stage - the material is still in the initial ideation and design phase, with a focus on its feasibility, use cases and purpose
• Development Stage - the material is being tested and is currently under development in a laboratory 
• Partner Trials - the Maker is trialling the material with third or corporate parties to better understand its validity, scope, properties and areas for improvement
• Limited Orders - the material is in the early commercialisation stage, available to work with but limited in its scale, reach and scope 
• Commercially Available - the material is scaling up and is generally available, or available for premium limited partners
• Mass Market - the material is extensively available at a non-premium price   

Packaging made by microbes through fermentation processes that can be broken down in the natural environment by microbes once they’re discarded. For packaging to qualify as home compostable, it has to be recognised by soil’s microorganisms so they can metabolise the material and break it back down into organic matter.

Microplastics are small pieces of plastic which measure less than 5 millimetres long and typically originate from larger plastic pieces that slowly degrade into smaller and smaller bits. Microbeads are a good example of a manufactured microplastic made from polyethylene and added to exfoliating beauty products including cleansers and toothpastes. Microbeads are now banned in 19 countries, according to Beat the Microbead. 

The Mobius loop is the very familiar symbol showing a triangle with three arrows looping back on themselves in clockwise direction. This symbol indicates that a product is capable of being recycled, but it does not necessarily mean it has been recycled - or that it would be accepted in all recycling collection systems. In other words, it is only theoretically recyclable.

A variation of the Mobius loop is the ‘green dot’ which is a circle composed of two green arrows looping into one another in a kind of yin-yang. A company can label its packaging with the green dot even if the product is not recyclable and is not made from recycled materials - it simply means that the company has donated money towards recycling of packaging somewhere in the world.

Packaging solutions that feature a number of components that are designed to be disassembled, ensuring their correct disposal. For instance, a modular makeup palette enables users to easily remove the metal pans from the palette so that each component can either be placed in the correct recycling stream or composted.

Monocultures refer to growing one crop species in a field at a time. The process enables farmers to use machinery and increases the efficiency of planting and harvesting. Despite supplying the lion’s share of the world’s food, monocultures are amongst the most controversial features of today’s agriculture because of the chemicals used to keep the crops healthy. These chemicals kill the local insects and destroy the soil health, both of which have long term and serious consequences for future food production.

A product that is made of a single type of material rather than from multiple materials. A mono-material product is easier to recycle.

A popular packaging material, also known as moulded pulp, that can be made from a number of plant-based celullosic fibres. The fibres are dissolved in water to create a pulp, which is then moulded into shape using a variety of processes. There are four types of moulded fibre:

• Type 1 (Thick Wall) uses a single mould to shape the material, producing a rough finish on one side and a relatively smooth texture on the other. Type 1 products are dried in an oven, are very sturdy, and have a wall thickness between five and 10 millilmetres. It can be used to produce nursery pots and protective packaging for electronic goods and heavy appliances.
• Type 2 (Transfer Moulded) is manufactured using a forming mould and a transfer mould, with a wall thickness of between three and five millimetres and a relatively smooth finish on one side. Egg cartons and trays are classified as Type 2 products, as well as mobile phone and electrical equipment packaging, hospital disposables, tableware, and fruit and drink trays.
• Type 3 (Thermoformed or Thin Wall) uses a series of heated moulds to shape and dry the material with no need for oven curing. Type 3 products are a drop-in replacement for thermoformed plastic packaging and are an ideal packaging solution for point-of-purchase use. They have a refined, smooth finish, high definition detailing, and a wall thickness of between two and four millimetres.
• Type 4 (Processed) requires secondary processes after moulding to cure and finish the material, such as hot pressing, perforation, and trimming. The process includes additives that enhance the fibre's properties and introduce extra design details.

Particles unintentionally produced from the degradation and the manufacturing process of plastic objects. Nanoplastics present a colloidal behaviour and range in size from 1 to 1000 nm (nanometre). Research suggests they pose threats to marine biota, and can alter molecular and physiological processes.

‘Net zero’ means balancing the amount of greenhouse gases being emitted, against the amount being removed from the atmosphere. Equally. Many believe it is contentious as countries or business can continue emitting the same emissions through ‘offsetting’ programs. In 2019, the UK became the first country in the world to commit to achieving net zero by 2050 which means the UK needs to remove the same amount of carbon that it is responsible for putting into the atmosphere.

Nutrients are chemical substances found in every living thing on Earth. Humans, animals, plants, and all other organisms need nutrients to survive. They are used in an organism’s body to grow - by building cells, to repair - for healing a wound, and to maintain life - breathing.

A packaging solution made from nutrients – chemically unmodified plant molecules that are abundant in nature – which can be returned to nature after its useful life and used as food by the soil ecosystem, not poison. Using nutrient-rich materials for packaging is the ultimate signifier of zero waste, allowing packs to go back into nature’s infinite cycle of life, regenerating the soil for the next living thing.

While often confused with biodegradable plastics, oxo-degradable plastics are a category unto themselves. They are neither a bioplastic, nor a biodegradable plastic, but rather a conventional plastic mixed with an additive to imitate biodegradation. Oxo-degradable plastics quickly fragment into smaller and smaller pieces, called microplastics, but do not break down at the molecular or polymer level like biodegradable and compostable plastics. The resulting microplastics are left in the environment indefinitely. 

‘Packaging’ is often used in relation to food and drinks packaging given the size of this market, for example, a cereal box or a beverage can. The ISO standard defines packaging more widely by its purpose: Packaging is a product for the containment, protection, handling, delivery, storage, transport and presentation of goods, from raw materials to processed goods, from the producer to the user or consumer, including processor, assembler or other intermediary.

Packaging is often subdivided into three types – all of which are used to ship products from the production line to the consumer.

Primary packaging is the packaging that contains the product.

Secondary packaging includes the boxes or containers that hold a set number of primary packages for easier inventory control and protection, or the box that a bottle of skincare comes packaged in.

Tertiary refers to the pallets and large shipping containers for storing and warehousing.

A fully serviced reusable packaging system that integrates into a brand’s and retailer’s existing infrastructure to encourage reuse. Services typically include the filling, tracking, collecting, cleaning, and refilling of universal containers, removing the hassle for brands and ensuring a never-ending loop. 

PEFC (Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification) is a global alliance of national forest certification systems. As an international non-profit, non-governmental organisation, PEFC promotes sustainable forest management through independent third-party certification.

The opposite of single-use, permanent packaging is designed to last and to be used again and again and again. A great example is refillable metal shampoo bottles which can be used ad infinitum by refilling or pre-filling them.

Perfluorochemicals (PFCs) are a group of chemicals used to make fluoropolymer coatings and products that resist heat, oil, stains, grease, and water.

Fluoropolymer coatings are used on numerous products ranging from clothing, furniture, adhesives and food packaging to heat-resistant non-stick cooking surfaces and electrical wire insulation. Many PFC chemicals, including perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), are worrying because they do not break down in the environment. In addition, two decades of research into the effect of PFOS exposure on human health concludes it causes hepatotoxicity, neurotoxicity, reproductive toxicity, immunotoxicity, thyroid disruption, cardiovascular toxicity, pulmonary toxicity, and renal toxicity in laboratory animals and many in vitro human systems.

After years of confusion about fossil fuel plastic, bio-plastics, drop-in plastics, compostable plastics and plant based plastics, there is good news. Materials scientists and experts of the European Union, who are the most ambitious in plastic reduction and true systemic change, have finally agreed the following as the definition of plastic:

"Polymeric materials to which additives may have been added."

This means all plastics that are chemically modified polymers, regardless of where they come from - fossil fuels or plants or fermentation.

The only polymer-based materials that are considered plastic free are those that are not chemically modified as they occur naturally in the environment. Examples of this are algae, seaweed, cellulosic fibres - so long as they are not chemically modified.

This gives absolute clarity on what is a plastic, and what is not.

Examples of common plastics are polyethylene (PE, HDPE, LDPE, LLDPE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET, PETE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene (PS, EPS), PVA, PHA, PVOH, PHBV, PLA, PBAT, PBS, TPS, PEF and BIO-PE.

Although some of these plastics derive from plants and fermentation processes, we consider them transitional materials, a step on a better path than fossil fuels but not the final solution.

Like carbon offsetting, plastic offsetting is based on the idea that companies and consumers can offset or compensate their plastic consumption by purchasing plastic credits or directly funding social and environmental projects working with plastic waste. While companies and governments are using a similar approach to reduce their carbon emissions, there is no standardisation of the approach for plastic offsetting. In our opinion, carbon and plastic offsetting are methods to continue using plastic, instead of turning off the tap and adopting systems change solutions to live without plastic where feasible.

Polymers are chemical substances made of large molecules which are made from multiple smaller, and simpler molecules. Proteins and DNA are examples of natural polymers.

A precautionary principle is an approach based on the premise that something may be true - even though there is insufficient evidence to prove it at the time.

Pre-consumer content refers to materials that are recycled before they are used by consumers.  Post-consumer content are materials that are recycled after they have been sold and used by consumers. In terms of circularity, post-consumer recycled content is a more important measure of good design and reuse.

PRE-consumer example: A factory makes circular discs punched out of large sheets of film. When the sheet comes to the end of the production line, the offcuts are collected and fed back into the machine to make more circles. This is called pre-consumer recycling and a manufacturer can claim that their product contains x% pre-recycled content.

POST-consumer example: A product is manufactured, shipped and bought in a shop. At the end of its life, the product is put in a recycling bin, collected, and re-processed before being sold again on the open market as a new product. This manufacturer can claim their product contains x% recycled content. Beverage cans for example contain a high percentage of post recycled content.

Refill refers to a system whereby a consumer takes their own container and refills it in a shop. Prefill is the more convenient evolution of Refill. A shopper buys a full bottle or container from the shop, as they usually would. The bottle or container can be returned empty either at the same shop it was bought from, or at easy drop off points around a town or city. Empty packs are collected by a third party, cleaned and sent back to manufacturers to refill and put back on the shelf. This system is evolving fast in certain markets with built-in reward and loyalty systems for the next shop.

A prefilled packaging system enables a consumer to buy a full bottle or container from the shop as usual, which is then returned when empty either to the same shop or a local drop-off point. Empty packs are collected by a third party, cleaned and sent back to manufacturers to refill and put back on the shelf. Bottle deposits are often used to encourage returns. 

During mechanical recycling of materials, the polymer backbone can break into pieces which leads to a loss of performance. To compensate for lower quality, higher levels of additives and virgin polymer are often added during the recycling process.

Chemical recycling is high on the agenda now and being promoted as the answer to the globally dismal plastic recycling rates. As the name suggests, it uses more chemicals to break down plastic polymers into smaller molecules for reuse in new syntheses. These processes demand high energy and generate toxic waste.

Plastic food packaging is almost exclusively recycled by mechanical processes which means physically collecting the packaging, sorting and washing it, and then grinding it down. As food packaging is contaminated with food additional steps are needed before it can be remelted and reformed, including high-temperatures and vacuum and inert gas treatment.

The ‘recycling rate’ is the percentage of recyclable materials that are actually recycled from waste. Secondary components (complete, recyclable components) and secondary raw materials are distinct outputs.

It is important to note that the reference figures used to calculate the recycling rate are varied - and controversial.  One problem is that the ‘recycling rate’ is often equated with the ‘recovery rate’, which includes energy from incineration. 

The word is made by merging ‘Refill’ with ‘Revolution’, and refers to the rise in refillable packaging for everything from food and drink to beauty products. The Refillution is part of the move towards permanent packaging.

Regeneration is one of those terms with a number of diverse meanings. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, to be regenerated is to be ‘re-born; brought again into existence; or formed anew’ or to be ‘restored to a better state’.

The world is often used in relation to agriculture where ‘regenerative production’ provides food and materials in such a way that supports positive outcomes for nature, including healthy and stable soils, improved local biodiversity and improved air and water quality.

Renewable is often used with the word ‘energy’ to describe energy that is produced using the sun, wind or tides or from crops which can be regrown – or renewed. Renewable energy sources are the alternative to oil, gas and coal sources – all of which are finite.

Reverse logistics refer to supply chains dedicated to the reverse flow of products and materials. A good example would be using shipping containers, which would typically return empty to collect their next assignment of goods, to carry products on both their outward and return journeys.

The ability of a business or system to grow larger.

Turning a product into its own packaging by solidifying elements of its makeup so it can hold and protect itself. This strategy designs out wrappers and minimises the amount of material needed for secondary packaging. Self-containment typically applies to single doses of skincare or snacks which can be consumed on-the-go. 

Single-use plastics (SUPs) are used once, often for a short period of time, before being thrown away. The 10 most commonly found single-use plastic items on European beaches, alongside fishing gear, represent 70% of all marine litter in the EU.

In commerce, a supply chain refers to the network of organisations, people, activities, information, and resources involved in delivering a product or service to a consumer, often starting at the point of manufacture.

In an environmental context, sustainable is defined as ‘the quality of causing little or no damage to the environment and therefore able to continue for a long time.’

Over recent years, ‘sustainability’ has become a buzz word among brands and consumers, and has unfortunately lost meaning as a result. The term is often used by brands to greenwash marketing initiatives, without any context as to how they are actually being more 'sustainable'. Boohoo's use of the term in its garment descriptions - 'High Waisted Sustainable Skinny Jeans' - is one example. 

Systems change captures the idea of addressing the causes, rather than the symptoms, of a societal issue by taking a fully holistic or ‘systemic’ view.

Systemic change is generally understood to require adjustments or transformations to the policies, practices, power dynamics, social norms or mindsets that underlie the societal issue at stake. It often involves the collaboration of a diverse set of players and can take place on a local, national or global level. For example – moving from a centralised energy system based on fossil fuels to a decentralised system based on renewable energy sources.

The quantity of carbon present in a product in the form of organic, inorganic and elemental carbon. 

Transitional materials are classed as plastic according to the EU and while some may transition to be plastic free, others will not. All, however, are deliberately and positively moving away from using fossil fuels and towards new feedstocks, new ingredients and new processes which are less damaging. We believe these materials are the building blocks that will underpin the design of our products in the future.

Resin Identification Codes (RIC) were established by The Society of the Plastics Industry in 1988 to help identify, sort and separate materials according to their resin type. Each resin type was given a number ranging from 1 to 7 which is shown in a triangle. In reality, only #1 and #2 are liked by recyclers, who need each plastic to be separated in order to preserve the material’s value and so it can be re-used in other products.

• #1 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)

• Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET or PETE) is sometimes referred as poly or polyester. PET is a strong, stiff, stable material that’s a lightweight plastic resin and form of polyester. It closely resembles glass in crystal clarity and takes colouring well. PET is also shatter-resistant, slightly flexible, and has good oil barrier properties. It is also said to be easy to recycle, but we counter this claim by the fact that only 9% of plastic ever made has actually been recycled.

  Examples: PET is used for food packaging, beverage bottles, and cups and containers for liquids due to its strong barrier properties against water vapour, diluted acids, gases, oils and alcohols. PET is also commonly used in clothing fibres.

• #2 High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
  
  High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) is more rigid than LDPE and MDPE. It is a high impact flexible resin that is resistant to cracking and has a natural milky color with no luster appearance. HDPE is the most popular resin used for plastic bottles. HDPE is surface is supplied treated which makes it excellent for screen printing. Flaming may be required.
  
  Examples: Milk jugs are one of the most common HDPE products.

• #3 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

  Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) is a widely used plastic and a controversial resin from an environmental standpoint. It remains the 2nd most used resin throughout the world. Containers made of PVC offer clarity, durability and an excellent barrier to most gases, but it is vulnerable to certain solvents.

  Environmental issues include the use of chlorine to make PVC, a toxic substance that’s directly linked to the degradation of the ozone layer. PVC’s production also creates dioxins and dioxin-like compounds, which are persistent environmental pollutants and are toxic to human health.

  Examples: PVC is primarily used for shampoo bottles, hair colouring, salad dressings, and many personal care items.

• #4 Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE)

  Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) has a high impact strength with excellent resistance to cracking. LDPE is resistant to many chemicals and is a great choice for cosmetic lotions and creams. LDPE is significantly more expensive than HDPE but produces a glossy appearance when produced in colour. LDPE is excellent for screen printing. Flaming may be required.

  Examples: Plastic bags, six-pack rings and squeezable tubing are all good examples.

• #5 Polypropylene (PP)

  Polypropylene (PP) is a naturally translucent material with a high heat stability of temperatures between 230 – 260F. It also offers potential use in steam sterilisation. PP compatibility with high filling temperatures makes it ideal for use with hot filled products. PP resin is a challenge for screen printers to work with. Flaming is necessary to clean the impurities off the container so inks can bond to PP. Additional charge for flaming is required and your container will lose its shine in the areas treated. This is a good material to stay away from if you want to screen print.

  Examples: tubes, auto parts, industrial fibres and food containers.

• #6 Polystyrene (PS)

  Polystyrene (PS) protects against moisture and comes in many shapes. Foam egg cartons, foam coffee cups and foam meat trays are just some of the many uses. Styrene does not provide a good barrier against many chemicals and has poor impact resistance. It is also used for inexpensive cosmetic compacts and packaging. Flaming is not required.

  Examples: plastic utensils, styrofoam and cafeteria trays.

• #7 Other

  ‘#7 Other’ identifies all other resins, but Polylactide (PLA) has become the second most consumed bioplastic, by volume, in the world. It is a ‘biodegradable’ polyester derived from corn starch in the US and Canada, tapioca roots in Asia, and sugarcane in the rest of the world. PLA requires significantly less energy to mould into plastic containers. It can be shaped into a variety of bottles, containers, trays, acrylic, nylon, film and other packaging.

  Common everyday uses of PLA include cups, bags, food packaging and disposable tableware. It is also used to form fibre fabrics, making it a perfect resin for disposable garments, diapers, feminine hygiene products and upholstery and awnings. In the medical profession, it’s used for implants in the form of anchors, screws, plates, pins, rods, and as a mesh.

  The properties of PLA are well suited for the injection stretch blow moulding process used to form bottles and jars. PLA is primarily suited for short-shelf-life applications that use cold-filling techniques. It is successful as a bottle resin because of its transparency.

Upcycling, also known as ‘creative reuse’, is the transformation of by-products, waste materials or unwanted products into new materials or products perceived to be of greater quality, artistic value or environmental value.

Vegan leather sounds benign, however be careful as it is often made from polyurethane, a plastic. That said, vegan leather makers are increasingly using more innovative and sustainable materials including pineapple leaves, cork, apple peel, other fruit waste (and recycled plastic). Vegan leather has come on leaps and bounds over the last decades and well-made vegan-leather products can often be mistaken for the real thing. Watch out for coatings, though, as even if it’s made from a natural material, it is more often than not coated in plastic for protection. 

The well-intentioned act of disposing of an item in a recycling bin in the hope that it will be recycled, even if the item is not recyclable or is not accepted by the existing recycling system.